№19 (182) March, 2004 RUSSIAN LITURGICAL CHORAL AESTHETICS: ITS PAST IN TRADITION AND PRESENT IN RUINS Olga Dolskaya (Continued from "Russian Inok", February 2004) Chapter 2 The Rise of Polyphony and Choral Tradition in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries During the course of the 16th century, elaborate chant-based monophonic compositions began to exist side by side with polyphonic singing for three voices. The chant was usually in the middle and the top voice and bottom voice complemented the chant. The melodic lines proceeded linearly, in a ribbon-like fashion with instances of one voice holding one note while others sang the melody, a trait common in Russian folk polyphony. The resulting texture was genuinely linear and unique, and one in which a variety of intervals were represented. Aside from the above, other types of polyphonic styles existed in Russia during the 16th and 17th centuries, including demestvennyi polyphony, and znameny polyphony, as well as a multitude of regional variants of chant-based polyphony. The influence of the West in Russian church music made itself known gradually from the beginning of the 17th century. This influence, however, was never a mere imitation of the West but quite distinct from it. Manuscripts of the period reveal an assimilation of some of the latest western styles and techniques, coexisting with a compositional process that never completely broke with Russia's long-established rich spiritual tradition.104 Chant-based Russian-style polyphony flourished side by side with compositions that abounded with western Baroque aesthetic affections. The major unfortunate consequence of Westernization was not so much that singing took on a different profile (that becomes inevitable as each era has its own musical language), but that it became an ornamental part of the service rather than an integral form of worship, inseparable from the service. This was especially true of the repetition of words to accommodate a musical phrase, something that the nationalistic revival of the nineteenth century became sensitive to and tried to avoid (beginning with Bortniansky and culminating in the Synodal School). Despite the changes, singing continued to be a focal part of the services, as evidenced by writings of such witnesses as Johannes, who in 1675 said that "Russians glorify the Lord in much more solemn manner than do the Romans. The parishioners sing together beautifully as they respond to the choir. The harmonies in their singing are beautiful… I was so taken by their singing that I thought I stood in Jerusalem, where the spirit of the early church was such an inspirational factor. Pleni sunt coeli et terra Majestatis gloriae Tuae!"105 And in Paul of Aleppo's writings, we learn that there endured an emphasis on everything beautiful within the realm of the church, that the singing of the women and children was heart rending, and that the people were quite literate.106 Children participated in singing with the adults, and boy descants were especially cultivated. In order to accommodate the growing need for trained boys' voices, schools grew significantly in number during the last quarter of the seventeenth century. Historically, musical training was considered an important part of the formative process of members of the clergy. Only after the completion of their musical education, were deacons allowed to be ordained.107 A favorite pastime in seventeenth-century Russia was to sing or listen to church music performed outside of church. Both Czars Aleksei and Feodor were enthusiasts and promoters of the arts associated with the church. They encouraged singing in a wide range of genres and styles, from demestvenny polyphony and "Many Years" in demestvenny to performances for Christmas and holidays of psalms, harmonizations of chants, spiritual, devotional songs written mostly for three voices and vocal concertos which were composed for three to twenty four parts, for different combinations of voices. For this sort of spiritual relaxation singers were rewarded with substantial sums of money and food or clothing (such as furs). Manuscripts of part singing surfaced in Novgorod and Moscow sometime during the first half of the seventeenth century, prior to the official invitation of Kievan singers by Czar Aleksei in 1652. By the time of the 1668 Church Council, part singing was officially accepted in the Church as one of the styles of singing that was to coexist with traditional chant-based singing. By the second half of the century there existed polyphonic cycles of Divine Services known as "God's Services," harmonizations of chants for a variety of parts, multi-voice vocal concertos and other categories of polyphonic composition in the "new style" written for different combinations of voices and notated in the square note Kievan notation. Hundreds of manuscripts that have not yet been transcribed, let alone evaluated, attest to a great diversity of stylistic attributes that prevailed in the musical language of Russia during the seventeenth century. Here lies the beginning of Russia's sacred choral expression with its unique individuality and manner of singing. One of the predominant features of part singing or the new style is that it promoted a vertical alignment of voices, yet preserved, at least to a certain extent, a chant-based linear sense of compositional thinking. The chant was often in the tenor and was sung by more than one voice to give it prominence. The upper and lower voices were to complement and enhance the chant. If not chant-based, one often still detects a more linear and variation-oriented compositional process, rather than a duplication of parts in a solely vertical texture. Thus despite a movement towards homophony, Russia never lost touch with linear compositional thinking, so typical of its expression. One of the most frequent mistakes in today's recordings of works in which the chant (or the main melody) is given to an inner voice (or travels from voice to voice as is often the case) is to ignore it, and give prominence to sopranos who are actually not the carriers of the main thematic material, but whose role is to complement and ornament the main melody. The role of each voice part depends on the individual composition. In harmonizations of chants, for instance, voices responsible for conveying the chant were reinforced by a larger number of voices, others were to sing in such a way as to enhance the chant. The new style of singing of the seventeenth century eventually developed into the "high Baroque,"often referred to as the "Moscow Baroque,"108 a Muscovite variant of the western Baroque, endowed with a national spirit and character that does not correspond to anything in the West. From the little we know, composers from the Muscovite north and the Kievan south, were not trained in the West, yet their works betray a certain awareness of Western techniques. This was a time of architectural growth, not to mention aesthetic blossoming of all the arts associated with the Church. Choirs grew in number and served both monastic and parish churches, as well as church and court officials. Singers had to be well-versed in a variety of styles, from chant-based polyphony to the new Baroque style, to which they apparently converted quite willingly, despite the new notation so alien to them. They moved freely from one choir to another, rising in rank to join the more prestigious ones. The most eminent choir to join was the Czar's Choir which grew in size to more than 70 members by the end of the seventeenth century. Next in rank was the Patriarchal Choir consisting of about 50 singers in the 1690s. It worked closely with the Czar's Choir and shared functions at important services in which the Czar's Choir stood on the right kliros and the Patriarch's on the left. Both joined forces at special festivities and processions. We know, for instance, that even in the days of young St. Petersburg during the first half of the eighteenth century, on Holy Days or for consecrations of new churches (a common event in those days), bishops from other areas such as Suzdal, Archangel, or Voronezh, traveled to St. Petersburg with their own singers who sang along with the local choirs. One can well imagine the mutual respect and dignified solemnity that reigned during the services. Striving for fullness of sound had always been characteristic of Russian tradition, when during an important moment of the Service, both right and left choirs united with clergy in resounding singing. One traveler remarked: "Nothing can be more strikingly grand than the singing of the priests."109 It is difficult to evaluate at the present time the new style of singing of the second half of the seventeenth century as most of the music is in manuscript form and has not yet been transcribed. Already in pre-revolutionary days, the Russian musicologist, Stepan Smolensky, called attention to the seventeenth century as one that contained the roots to Russia's choral expression, and about its composers he said: "In their innovations one can hear our past."110 Indeed, this was an era in which the past and the present were fused. The style betrays a linear compositional process combined with variation patterns and cell mutation of the melodic material, rather than exact duplication of parts. Fragmentation of chants, a constant striving towards a fuller, thicker texture with a tendency towards an integration rather than division into separate choirs (more characteristic of the Western Venetian Baroque) were also prominent. Consistent with the Western Baroque musical language of the time, there were tutti/solo alternations, virtuoso-like passages, imitative entries of voices, yet these existed side by side with the Russian under-voice polyphony and the song formation which came directly from the three-part spiritual song popular at the time in Muscovy.111 Form emanated from the text (especially in the works of the better composers), but the Western ritornello aspect of return (of a particular section) was also part of the musical language of the time. The texture of these compositions consisted of an alternation of three-part ensemble sections with the full-bodied tutti. Some of the ensembles might have been sung by soloists, especially those more melismatic or virtuosic in nature, but the use of soloists might not even have been an issue at the time and thus should not be applied indiscriminately today.112 In his Musical Grammar, the seventeenth-century theorist Nikolai Diletsky contrasts ensemble passages he labels as "to be sung with a soft voice," with tutti to be sung more sonorously, without reference to any particular number of voices per part. The singing of the melodic material, he adds, should be done "with a humble voice," referring to Grace to the humble and "with his voice, a singer must transmit the essence of the work." Virtuosity was present in Russia, but it was not measured by the ability to sing fast but by the ability to transmit the text and solemnly sustain a long-winded melodic phrase to reflect that text, a practice inherited from znamenny chant. Although most of the music from the period is anonymous, we do know of at least fifty names of composers active in Moscow during the second half of the seventeenth century. One of the most talented of these was the Muscovite composer and singer in the Czar's Choir, Vasily Titov (ca. 1650-1715).114 Titov seemed to have consciously tried to reinforce the text, and was sensitive to it, despite being limited by the Western musical language of the time. As a representative of the Russian Baroque during an era which is believed to have been predominantly Western in character, Titov stands among his contemporaries as a figure well equipped to deal with new trends permeating from the West, yet equally sensitive to native tradition. His compositions reveal a solid command of movement through constant energy and dynamic drive, as well as a logical unfolding of musical ideas. Through skillful manipulation of texture, he helped lay the foundation for the rich sonorous style that was later to become the choral tradition unique to Russia. He composed about two-hundred choral works for a variety of combinations of voices, such as concerts for eight to twenty-four parts, as well as cycles of Divine Services, including one based on the znamenny chant for eight voices. One of Titov's trademarks is the ability to complement the text and build momentum through gradual intensification at important moments of the text. He also favored thicker, fuller textures, with voices emanating from a particular melodic cell idea, avoiding duplication of parts in favor of variation or mutation of a motive or phrase. Thus the formative years of the Russian choral tradition did not begin with Dimitry Bortniansky at the end of the eighteenth century, as is customary to believe, but in the music of Vasily Titov and his contemporaries, one hundred years prior to Bortniansky.115 In the beginning of the eighteenth century, Peter the Great brought some of his singers to St. Petersburg, twenty-eight out of the hundred which were part of his choir at the time,119 headed by Stefan Beliaev, a Muscovite composer and choir director. This choir later became known as the Imperial Court Chapel Choir, and contained a select group of professional singers who wore velvet and gold vestments, green for daily services and burgundy red for Feast days. Some accompanied Peter during his travels, perhaps, in part, contributing to a Protestant and Western Catholic influence on Russian choral music of the time. Peter the Great is known to have been quite a singing enthusiast. "On Sundays and Holy Days, Peter attends the Holy Trinity Church… upon entering the church he takes off his wig… stands on the right kliros with his singers and sings in a clear voice… by memory, with as much confidence as the priests and monks who have books in front of them, as the Czar knows the Services, reads the Epistle in front of the church…and at times even conducts the choir."120 As to the Patriarchal singers, those who remained in Moscow, away from foreign influence, became the more conservative keepers of the truly national tradition of singing, in the solemn spirit of the ancient Kremlin cathedrals. In 1720, however, due to Peter's resolution to replace the Patriarch by the Synod, thirty-two of the singers were recalled to St. Petersburg, thus temporarily weakening the group, which became known as the Synodal Singers Choir. They continued to sing only in the religious milieu both in and outside of church, whereas the St. Petersburg Court Capella was also, up until Bortniansky's tenure, involved in the court's secular entertainment. Chapter 3 Stylistic Currents in the Eighteenth Century Despite the fact that the empresses had a profound love for church singing in which they received a sound education from childhood, their reign (1725-1796) is marked by an Italian influence that swept over Russia in all areas of musical development. Elizabeth was more active in promoting traditional Russian rather than Italian singing; she sponsored a small choir in her own private chapel, had her own music stand and took part in singing during the services.121 Nonetheless, trends and changes were overbearing and there ensued, unfortunately, a process of secularization that introduced inappropriate melodic and rhythmic melodies that originated from the folk or secular realm. In 1738, the newly-founded Glukhov school and musical center for church related activities was dedicated to the training of boys' voices (such as young Bortniansky), as well as choral and ensemble singing. Both the znamenny and its more western and shorter Kievian chants were sung there, along with a variety of other genres, including spiritual verses, with the participation of different choirs and ensembles. The Court Capella in St. Petersburg also had its school of apprentices and trainees, with such renowned teachers and conductors (Kapellmeisters) as Araja, Galuppi, Traetta, Paisiello, Sarti, Poltoratsky and Bortniansky. In 1768, the choir numbered about 12 basses, 13 tenors, 13 altos, 15 descants and about as many trainees, with powerful low voices and gentle, clear upper voices.122 This descriptive categorization of voice quality was an important part of Russian tradition, aspired for in the choirs. When Galuppi heard the Capella for the first time he exclaimed: "Such a great choir I have never heard in Italy!"123 Choral activities were by no means limited to Court or Synodal singers. Monasteries, church, and court officials had their own private choirs as well. Monastic choirs followed their archimandrites and Pontifical choirs their bishops everywhere these went, including to meals and other functions where singers sang a variety of sacred works as well as the "Many Years" such as the famous one by Titov which was sung up to the revolution.124 Monastery choirs remained more traditionally Russian and chant-oriented in style. In some, such as in the Kiev-Caves Lavra, there were only basses, always singing harmoniously and antiphonally on both kliroses, as was typical of monastery practice. Staehlin also noted that in certain towns there existed singing societies in which people who loved church music gathered to learn and practice, performing the most superlative church music), and especially outdoing themselves during feast days.125 By the second half of the eighteenth century, a number of native composers began to gain prominence in Russia. One was Maxim Berezovsky (1745-1777), who studied under Padre Martini (Mozart's teacher), and became an outstanding composer in Italy. He received the title of Maestro, with a marble plaque dedicated to him at the Bologna Academy. In 1774 he returned to Russia where he died at a young age. His works show less reliance on the Italian school, an individualized style with a more national inclination and a sense of unity and aesthetic beauty that complemented the text. Staehlin observed that among the many composers at court, Berezovsky was especially gifted, with an ability to compose in the delicate church manner, with such taste that it elicited praise from the authorities and approval from the Court.126 Dimitrii Bortniansky's (1751-1825) contribution represents a major milestone in the development of Russian Orthodox church music. He left us many chant-based works in different settings for the church calendar year, as well as vocal concertos for four parts and some for double choir. He was a classicist and a supreme craftsman and melodist. He used the musical language of his time to elevate the sacred text to unprecedented heights, with a strong sense of the spiritual. His works show independent thinking from his contemporaries and a concern for music that is appropriate for the church, devoid of the superfluous sounds that divert the attention of the worshipper from the text. He also participated in the printing of the Old Russian Cycle of Chants in Neumatic Notation, a project that began to address the need to return to the study and publication of chants that were preserved in manuscripts. In his musical settings, Bortniansky had a natural gift for elevating the chant and its text, and giving it a sense of direction. Although his form was classical, as he was not only a product of his age, but was also expected to produce in the best manner of the classical West, the inner elements that constituted the music had a distinctively Russian, national character. "The opinion, that the compositions of Bortniansky do not belong to Russian music and are, by their character, Western European is both incorrect and unwarranted. The sacred works of Bortniansky, with a few exceptions, do belong to Russian music, in their melodic genesis as well as in their character… He was obliged to fulfill his position which was to compose no worse than the Italians… If he had acted against the aesthetic needs of the court grandees of his time and had treated them to Russian counterpoint, then naturally, his position would have at once been taken by a new Italian, from across the sea… Bortniansky wrote many choral works for the church, not composing melodies, but extracting them from books published by the Synod… they develop in the worshipper a profound religious spirit and in that respect they are sacred, even though they are written according to the rules of the Italian masters… He was an educated Russian musician, a great master, a highly principled inspired artist, tirelessly and during the course of his entire life striving towards a conscious goal. In him was a genius capable of fulfilling the aesthetic needs of all classes and ages of his day as well as those of future generations".127 It was during Bortniansky's tenure that the Court Choir rose to unprecedented excellence and prompted national identity in Russian church music. "Bortniansky's life, from seven years of age to his death, was centered primarily around the Court Choir and was dedicated, most of all, to Russian church singing."128 Born and first educated in Glukhov, Bortniansky was singled out for his beautiful descant voice and taken to St. Petersburg to sing in the Court Capella. His education, sponsored by the court, included studies with Galuppi as well as about 10 years spent in Venice where he became one of the most revered opera composers of Italy. Upon his return to St. Petersburg, Bortniansky was named director of the St. Petersburg Imperial Court Kapella and in 1801, director of all musical activities at the court. From the very beginning (and against the current of Italian singing promoted at the time), in a very cultured, tactful, delicate but firm manner, he used his knowledge and experience to turn Russia in the direction of restoring its inherent legacy and return to the rich tradition of chant-based singing.129 He left us compositions devoid of the boisterous, self-absorbed solos which, at the time, was a major step in reawakening that Russian humble and harmonious singing. With only a few exceptions, he showed a profound adherence to the text, as is the case, for instance, in his music composed for Great Lent. Aside from rehearsing, teaching, and tending to his administrative duties, he was also commissioned to compose for a variety of occasions which demanded compositions in the accepted style of the time. Yet throughout his life, he cultivated a style of composition and singing that looked specifically to Russia's past for inspiration. By 1800, he made sure that the Capella was no longer involved in secular performances but devoted its time entirely to church singing. Bortniansky also gave concert performances of major western sacred works, such as the world premiere of Beethoven's Missa Solemnis in 1824.130 By 1817, the court choir had 108 singers, trained by Bortniansky to sing sonorously with meticulous shades of nuances and with excellent pronunciation of the text. Loud and superfluous vocal effects were excluded and thus the Capella became the foremost, most respected interpreter of sacred music in the world.131 "In his compositions, one finds a deep religious awareness, often a type of mysticism of profound inspiration, and a prodigious accordance of nuances and sonorous harmonies."132 Chapter 4 The Rise of National Expression in the Nineteenth Century In Moscow, the Synodal Choir continued to focus on more traditional, chant-based male singing (boys voices were introduced around 1763), avoiding the Italianate influence. Another, even more renowned choir around the middle of the nineteenth century was that of the Chudov Monastery, the residence of the Moscow Metropolitan. It was funded by wealthy Muscovite merchants and was distinguished by a line of fine choir directors and singers. Later, the Metropolitan residence moved to St. Sergius Trinity Monastery near Moscow. The Chudov Monastery, along with other churches in the Kremlin, was destroyed by the communist regime. In St. Petersburg, the Court Choir continued to be praised for its superb singing, befitting the dignified countenance of imperial services that proceeded with solemnity and an over-all smoothness. The choir was famous for its beautiful soft, gentle descant voices, supported by solid, rich basses. The mighty basses blended with the delicate descants. Voices were so well trained and controlled that they simulated instrumental subtleties, refrained from big sounds, and sang half voiced so that the slightest crescendo intensified the text. The chants themselves were simplified and condensed, but the style of singing that was developed there was unique to Russia and unparalleled for its beauty. One of the main composers for the church in the first half of the nineteenth century was Rev. Peter Turchaninov (1779-1856), who represents the transition from the Italianate to the national style of expression, with some influence from the then prevalent Germanic musical language. Turchaninov was born in Kiev, sang in the Levanidov choir as an alto, then was taken by Potemkin to St. Petersburg where he studied with Sarti. In 1803 he became a priest and in 1804, the director the Metropolitan choir of the Aleksandro-Nevskaia Lavra in St. Petersburg. From then on he directed various choral groups and was also famous for his tenor voice - the tenor in Turchaninov reaches up to the heavens. Turchaninov left us mostly harmonizations of chants, some in collaboration with F. Lvov, and some free, non-chant based works. His texture is characterized by a frequent use of high and low tessitura, making some of the music technically difficult to sing. Despite the fact that the chant had to be slightly altered to fit the harmonic musical language of the time, his settings remain a cherished contribution to church music. One of the most significant composers of the nineteenth century was Aleksei Fedorovich Lvov (1798-1870). Early in his life, Lvov developed a career as a virtuoso violinist, played with the Gewandhaus orchestra in Leipzig, and was praised and respected by such notable western composers as Mendelssohn, Meyerbeer, and Spontini. In 1836 he was appointed Director of the Court Capella and subsequently was commissioned by Czar Nicolas I to turn the Cappela away from the Italianate style. Lvov studied chants, became familiar with the neumatic notation and applied himself to the difficult task of returning national identity to Russian Orthodox church music. He wrote his ground-breaking treatise "On Free and Asymmetrical Meter" in 1858, in which he expounded on the text-driven rhythm of the melody, dependent upon the inflections of the syllables and proper accentuation of text. Metrical singing or the meter-oriented beating of time was imported from the West and not part of Russian tradition. In order to be considered 'civilized,'141 composers were compelled to use bar lines and time signatures but Lvov questioned that practice and came to the conclusion that only a free, non-restrictive rhythmic setting of a chant was appropriate. Yet he constantly looked over his shoulder to see what his German musician colleagues would say. In order to bring back national expression to church singing and reflect the beauty of the chants, he had to go beyond the limitations of that which the West had imposed and devise a style that would complement the free flow of the chant rather than be confined to regularly occurring beats and measures. Even though he was influenced by the Protestant chorale or congregational [cantional], homophonic style of singing, he aimed to subordinate the music to the text and not repeat a word just to conform to a musical phrase. He advocated the simultaneous [homorhythmic] presentation of text, for music to fit the accentuation of the text, and for the emancipation of Russian church music from symmetrical meter. Despite the demands of the times to imitate the West, and the minor changes that had to be made to the chant itself in order to suit the tonal system prevalent at the time, Lvov did much to resurrect chant-based singing.142 In that respect, he foreshadowed the national musical expression promoted by the Synodal School at the end of the nineteenth century. In the 1840s, Lvov and his collaborators were given the monumental task of setting the cycle of chants for the church calendar year, an idea that originated with Czar Nicolas I. The Czar and Lvov had mutual respect for each other. Lvov notes in his Memoirs: "The effect of this mass of choristers, singing with such preciseness and meticulous rendition of nuances was so stunning that I had difficulty conducting, especially during pianissimos… The Czar was overwhelmed. From the start I noticed that he blushed and his eyes filled with tears. He said to me "Are these the settings to which you are writing harmony?" Yes, I replied… He grasped my hand and said with admiration, "That is the unity I desired, thank you, thank you," to which I replied, "I am your disciple. Your approval means everything to me".143 This mutual respect resulted in the 1848 four-voice setting of the "Cycle of Chants for Common Church Singing Used at the Imperial Court" which contained the characteristics that became known as the St. Petersburg style: a straightforward four-voice texture in simple but accurate harmonization, a rather uniform texture (not a shortcoming since it left room to ennoble the text rather than detract from it), and sonorities that were described as an organ-like "elastic" smooth sound. The bass line was functional; characteristic of tradition was to double the bass an octave lower and smoothly attenuate phrases and cadences, thus creating a very unique and elevated atmosphere in the church. Frequent V7-I progressions and occasional chromaticism were part of the musical language of the time but despite the obstacles of westernization, Lvov constantly kept thinking in the direction of Russian expression; for instance, instead of using the usual Italian terms adagio, allegro, etc., he marked the sections "broadly, with elevated dignity, intensifying"[rather than crescendo!] which he found more fitting for the sacred text, rightfully so. With time, he noticed with great joy that as churches began to sing his harmonizations, the number of parishioners grew in number, even Old Believers who, having recognized their ancient melodies, quietly sang along with the choir. Lvov's interest in the ancient past was also reflected in his attempt to notate some of the chants that existed in the monasteries and cathedrals of Russia, to be added to those published by the Synod in 1772. Although he only had time to leave us the melodies of the Moscow's Kremlin Cathedral of the Dormition, the project was indicative of his constant search for preserving the beauty of Russia's national tradition. Lvov's goals and accomplishments have been summarized by I. Gardner;145 they include the task of raising the level of musical education of the Court Choir and developing a national training center for choir directors to improve the level of singing in provincial choirs. And thus the St. Petersburg style was disseminated throughout Russia, confronting the superfluous ornamentations, roulades, and other foreign "abuses," and creating a style that was appropriate for the church, even if only in simple straightforward harmonizations. He had to make minor changes to the melody to conform to the musical language of the time (in that respect he was a victim of the practices of his day), for which he was severely criticized by Moscow's Metropolitan Philaret. For this reason he decided to visit Moscow's churches to listen to the Synodal Choir, the choir of the Chudov Monastery and private choirs of Obolensky, Soloviev, Erokhov's, Bobovsky, etc., in order to attempt to convince the Metropolitan of his effort to properly address the chants.146 Lvov was highly musical and literate in the art of vocal and choral techniques necessary for true singing to take place, as opposed to lifeless mumbling or the sluggish sound that is often mistaken for "churchly singing." Under his leadership, the level of excellence was so high that it earned praise not only from the Czar but from foreign musicians as well, which unfortunately led to resentment and envy from some, a problem all great composers and conductors have to face. "The more the Czar praised my work, the greater the number of my enemies."147 For instance, Lvov decided to give a benefit concert for veterans, performed by various choirs trained by him in singing chant-based music. It was approved by the Czar, but due to the resulting beauty of the singing during rehearsals, intrigues kept surfacing from those envious of the impact it made on the listeners, forcing Lvov to cancel the performance.148 It is interesting to note how sensitive Lvov was to how the Czar was treated by various members of society. He sadly remarks how some exploited the Czar for rewards and money. He also notes how dedicated the people were to the Czar: "The Czar went to venerate the Iveron Icon of the Virgin Mary. In a moment, the people congregated from all directions and begged him to stay a little longer, which he did and they talked. After his departure, many wept, wanted to run after him, then began to kiss the area in which he stood."149 Lvov's "Notes-Memoirs" is a silent testament to many such intricate obstacles he had to face during his lifetime in order to restore chant-based singing in the church and begin the process of emancipation from foreign dominance. Nevertheless, he was successful in implementing the path in the right direction. Memorable are the reactions of those who witnessed the singing of the Court Choir under Lvov's tenure, once again affirming the fact that instruments were not needed in the Russian church. Adolphe Adam wrote in his letters: "A wondrous vocal orchestra! The doubling of the fundamental [by the octavists]… gives the ensemble a type of mellowness that is unknown in our vocal groups and makes this choir resemble a grandiose organ, the magnificence and effect of which upon an impressionable listener's nervous system is beyond description".150 Hector Berlioz added: "The singers of the Russian Imperial Chapel perform works by Bortniansky with a perfection of ensemble, finesse of nuances, and beauty of sound that is hardly imaginable. But this, instead of being the force of untrained masses of voices, is the product of exceptional art; one owes it to the excellence of the training of the chosen choristers. The choir is composed of 84 singers, men and boys… who perform slowly, with an angelic calmness of expression, which requires an excellent vocal technique and art of sustaining power, resulting in a sound that surpasses everything that exists in Europe. They have low voices, unknown to us, which descend to the depths of the low f below the bass clef… They shift with ease and assuredness from one tonality to another… and execute non-measured psalmodies with an ensemble of great agility… They all stood motionless, eyes downcast, waiting with the most profound stillness for the moment to begin, and with a sign that was unseen by anyone and not perceptible as to who gave the pitch or tempo, they suddenly broke into one of the grandest eight-voice concertos by Bortniansky… By their intensity, they suspend one's breathing… with celestial decrescendos resembling a choir of angels withdrawing from earth and dispersing into the heights…"151 Berlioz also commented on how much Lvov had built the "already rich repertoire of the Capella and perfected the performance technique of the choir."152 In the midst of this sudden silence, resounded the soft, low but filling the entire cathedral, sound of Protodeacon Rozov's chest-voice bass - Premudrost'. Then even more softly, even lower, with a quiet speaking voice - Dostoino est', iako vo istinu, blazhiti Tia Bogoroditsu… and softly, softly, the Synodal choir fully gathered for the occasion, began to sing Dostoino iest' for the Pontifical Entrance, on both klirosy. The clear, straight voices of the boys - silvery descants, bronze-like altos, light fluttering tenors, lyrical melodious baritones and bottomless [fathomless], velvety basses [oktavy] merged into one mighty, but quiet, extraordinary choir, filling the entire Cathedral.154 Other composers of the St. Petersburg School include Gavriil Lomakin (1812-1885), from Sheremetiev serf background, who became a teacher at the Court Capella, later director of the Sheremetiev Choir. He was also a teacher165 at the Free School of Music and a fine conductor and composer for the church. His well-crafted compositions reflect a traditional adherence to a smooth melodic and harmonic flow. Aside from many independent compositions for the church and collaboration with Lvov on harmonizations of chants, he wrote a Vigil based on znamenny chant, with utmost sensitivity to textual vividness and nuances. Mikhail Glinka (1804-1857) also searched for that perfect harmonic musical language that would be suitable for the setting of Russian chants. The prophetic, perceptive words of Czar Nicholas I resound in our minds today: "Glinka, I have for you a request and hope that you will not refuse me. My singers are acclaimed all over Europe, and therefore, they are worth your taking care of them. Only I beg you, do not let them be Italians".166 Despite his many other commitments in the realm of professional secular music, Glinka became involved with the Court Choir for a few years and wrote some compositions for the church, including the well-crafted Cherubic Hymn and a three-voice setting of the Liturgy. In his attempt to explore contrapuntal, linear, and modal possibilities, he inadvertently turned to Western counterpoint and its modes for solutions, but his quest can be considered a step in the right direction, in accordance with the musical trends of his time. An accomplished singer and voice teacher, Glinka's strength was his intimate knowledge of the vocal art and a consistent search for that national sound in vocal training. He transmitted his ideas in "Method: Exercises for the Leveling and Development of Flexibility in the Voice" in which he suggests to first develop and perfect those pitches (however few) that are natural to the voice, as opposed to the traditional school of singing scales which he found to be premature for an untrained voice. Little is known about Glinka's contribution to the vocal training of the Capella,167 but in his own quest for a national style, Glinka laid not only a path, but a wide and straight road,168 to the gradual unveiling of the Russian heritage which followed after his death. Grigorii Lvovsky (1830-1894) of the St. Petersburg school, is especially known for his : Now let all the heavenly hosts…. and other compositions in the free style, rich in harmonic diversity, skillful voice leading, and contrapuntal dexterity. In some respects, he and his contemporaries laid the path for the developments that began to take place in the Synodal School, preparing singers to excel vocally and move away from Westernization, towards a search for an innate musical language. Until 1893, Lvovsky was the choir director of the St. Petersburg Metropolitan Choir, whose reputation he raised to unprecedented heights. His settings of chants are highly creative and confirm his intent to keep the original melody intact. Evstafii Azeyev (1831-1918?)169 taught voice at the St. Petersburg Capella and other choral institutions, and was known as a theorist and scholar during his lifetime. His compositions evidence fine craftsmanship and a creative approach to voice leading. One of the last and most prominent composers of the St. Petersburg school or tradition was Aleksandr Andreyevich Arkhangelsky (1846-1924). Arkhangelsky was born in Penza, the son of a priest who died (while saving one of the church's door keepers who fell in the water during a fishing trip), when the composer was very young. Endowed with a beautiful voice as a boy, and having been raised close to the church, Arkhangelsky developed a sensitive and excellent ear for Russian church music. Full of inspiration, he began to compose early for the church and to rise in rank by accepting various positions as a voice teacher and choir director in Penza, and eventually, in St. Petersburg. With the permission of the church authorities, he gradually initiated the idea of accepting women in choirs to replace boys, a practice which spread throughout Russia in the 1880s. The use of boys' voices was part of tradition and it remained so in choirs such as the Court Capella of St. Petersburg, the Synodal Choir in Moscow and many others. However, strain associated with constant care in positioning the voice, overload of academic and musical studies, a lack of maturity in understanding the spiritual essence of what was sung and an overall exhaustion that boys experienced in carrying such a vital responsibility, were very much of a concern. It was crucial, however, that during the process of replacing boys with women's voices, one kept in mind the ideal sound of a Russian church choir. Women were thus taught to emulate that crystal clarity of a boy's voice by avoiding any vibrato, tremolo or passionate mannerism that might have been acquired from secular training. It was becoming clear that a totally different training process was to take place, specifically designed to serve the sacred and spiritual functions of church singing, quite distinct from secular training. It is specifically this thread that we, more than a century later, must now seek to recapture and cultivate.170 As a skillful choir director, Arkhangelsky also organized his own professional choir, where discipline was such that "every singer was expected to come to rehearsal already warmed up" and "each singer had to turn in their part individually to the conductor, including all nuances and subtleties."171 His self-discipline was no less demanding and he is known to have conducted by memory even some of the most difficult compositions of both Russian and Western repertoire.172 The press especially noted the "marvelous dynamic agility of this vocal orchestra, its mighty fortissimo and ethereal pianissimos and impeccable clarity of ensemble."173 Arkhangelsky's advice can be of use to us today: "The most important thing is that the singing be pliant: smooth, coalescent, and connected. For this to occur, all measures must be joined in a special way: do not breathe between the last note of the preceding measure and the first note of the next measure. When you are not taking a breath, do not separate the notes. See to it that the melody moves smoothly and fluidly to the greatest extent possible. Remember, pianissimo must be your [constant] preoccupation: forte will always come out. More sonorously does not mean more loudly, but rather, with greater clarity - then it will be heard… Do not forget: a chorus always benefits from soft singing: then mezzo-forte and forte-fortissimo will be much more effective, even though you will not expend great energy [to achieve] it."174 His conducting gestures were "economical and restrained, without `flailing about' and he used his face and fingers to interpret subtle details."175 With his choir, he toured the world and gave concerts to raise money for the Church Singing Voluntary Fund, an organization he initiated to provide help and lodging for elderly and disabled singers".176 Arkhangelsky wrote numerous compositions for the church, including settings of chants as well as free compositions for the church calendar year. His style is that of a gifted melodist, with delicately interwoven musical lines and a characteristically Russian festiveness that shows the composer's respect for the text. In his publications, he cautions to sing calmly, trying to sustain each sound with exactness. Elegiac in character, his music can be accessible to even a modest choir, as much of it is written in the homophonic tradition of the nineteenth century, with a mild use of modulation, tonal shifts, and occasional chromaticism (without obscuring the text). During the revolution, Arkhangelsky took his choir to Prague, but died shortly after that in 1924. The night before his death, while planning a rehearsal for the next day, he read from the Lives of Saints.177 To be continued. Note: The article above, edited by Holy Trinity Monastery, is one installment in a series of extracts from the original book, "Russian Liturgical Choral Aesthetics: Its Past in Tradition and Present in Ruins", by Olga Dolskaya, Associate Professor at the Conservatory of Music, University of Missouri, Kansas City. The extracts published here contain the main historical section of the original book and only some important excerpts from the analysis and interpretation of specific Liturgical compositions. The full version of the book, including cassette tapes, may be ordered from: Olga Dolskaya The Conservatory of Music University of Missouri Kansas City, 4949 Cherry St., Kansas City, MO 64110-2499 or by e-mail at AckerlyO@umkc.edu FOOTNOTES: [Gaps in the footnote numbers are due to the omitted interpretations and analysis of recordings supplied with the full version of the book. Ed.] 104) See T. Vladyshevskaia, "Partesnyi khorovoi kontsert v epokhu barokko," Traditsii russkoi muzykal'noi kul'tury XVIII veka: Trudy, 21 (Moscow: 1975), pp. 72-111; O. Dolskaya, "Vasilii Titov and the `Moscow' Baroque," Journal of the Royal Musical Association (London: 1993), pp. 203-222. 105) Johannes Herbinius. Religiosae Kyoviensis cryptae sive Kyovia subterranea (Jena, 1675), pp. 153-154. Excerpt translated in Gardner, Bogosluzhebnoe penie, vol. 2, p. 60. 106) Paul of Aleppo, The Travels of Macarius, Patriarch of Antioch in Seventeenth-Century Muscovy, vol. 2, transl. by F.C. Belfour (London: 1836). Excerpts of his writing also appear in J. von Gardner, Bogosluzhebnoe penie, vol. 2, pp. 28-41. 107) I.A. Chudinova, Penie, zvony, ritual (St. Petersburg: 1994), pp. 65-68. 108) For sources associated with this style, see: O. Dolskaya, Vasilii Titov and the Russian Baroque, in Monuments of Russian Sacred Music, V. Morosan, ed. (Musica Russica: 1995), and "Vasilii Titov and the `Moscow' Baroque," Journal of the Royal Musical Association (London, 1993). 109) Thomas Alcock, Travels in Russia, Persia, Turkey, and Greece (London: 1831), p. 54. 110) Stepan Smolensky, "Chteniia iz istorii russkago tserkovno-pevcheskago iskusstva," Russkaia muzykal'naia gazeta 3 (1910), p. 74. Also see his Obzor istoricheskikh kontsertov Sinodal'nago uchilishcha tserkovnago peniia v 1895 godu (Moscow: 1895). 111) O. Dolskaya, Spiritual Songs in Seventeenth-Century Russia (Koln: 1996), p. xxii, passim. 112) Iurii Keldysh, "Problema stilei v russkoi muzyke XVII-XVIII vekov," Ocherki I issledovaniia po istorii russkoi muzyki (Moscow: 1978), p. 100. 114) For transcription of works by Titov, available in the U.S., see O. Dolskaya, Vasily Titov and the Russian Baroque, in Monuments of Russian Sacred Music, Vladimir Morosan, ed. Series XIII, vol. 1. Musica Russica: 1995. 115) See O. Dolskaya, "Choral Music in the Petrine Era," Russia in the Reign of Peter the Great: Old and New Perspectives, Proceedings for the Study Group on Eighteenth-Century Russia (Cambridge, 1998). 119) J. von Gardner, Bogosluzhebnoe penie, p. 125. 120) From various diaries, including those of Kashin, Iulii and Bassevich. As quoted in M.V. Voznesensky, "Khorovoe iskusstvo Petrovskoi epokhi," Drevnerusskaia pevcheskaia kul'tura i knizhnost' (Leningrad: 1990), p. 142, p. 146. 121) Iakob Staehlin, "Izvestiia o muzyke v Rossii," Muzyka i balet v Rossii XVIII veka, reprint edition, B. Zagursky, trans. and ed. (Leningrad: 1935), p. 58. First published in Haigold, Beylagen zum Neuveranderten Russland (Riga und Leipzig: 1769-1770). 122) Staehlin also provides the names of the more outstanding singers in each voice part. Jakob Staehlin, Izvestiia o muzyke v Rossii, p. 59. Also published by A. Preobrazhensky in Russkaia muzykal'naia gazeta (1902), pp. 321-327. 123) Staehlin, "Izvestiia," p. 60. 124) The Titov Mnogoletie is believed to have been written originally for 12 voices. Only a six-voice version, however, is known to the author at the present time. It was published in Preobrazhensky's Ocherki tserkovnago peniia and has been re-issued, with transliteration by V. Morosan in, O. Dolskaya, Vasilii Titov and the Russian Baroque (1995). 125) Staehlin, "Izvestiia," p.60 126) Staehlin, "Izvestiia," pp. 59-60. 127) N. Kompaneisky, "Otvet na zametku o melodii gimna `Kol slaven nash Gospod," Russkaia muzykal'naia gazeta, no. 8 (1902), p. 234, 237. 128) Stepan Smolensky, "Pamiati D.S. Bortnianskogo," Russkaia muzykal'naia gazeta (1901), p. 917. 129) Smolensky, "Pamiati Bortnianskogo," pp. 919-920. 130) D. Lokshin, Zamechatel'nye russkie khory i ikh dirizhery (Moscow: 1963), p. 20. 131) Smolensky, "Pamiati Bortnianskogo," p. 923. 132) Hector Berlioz, Les Soirees de l'Orchestre (Paris: 1853), p. 270. 141) In his Memoirs, Lvov writes: "I typed the book and sent it to the German scholars. What will they say?", Zapiski A. F. L'vova," Russian Archives. (1884), p. 112. Also see Gardner, Church Chant, vol. 2, p. 317. 142) Lvov, O svobodnom ili nesimetrichnom ritme (St. Petersburg, 1858), p. 10. 143) A. Lvov, "Zapiski Alekseia Fedorovicha Lvova," Russkii arkhiv 4 (1884), p. 99. 145) I. von Gardner, Bogosluzhebnoe penie, pp. 314-315. Translated into English by V. Morosan, Choral Performance in Pre-Revolutionary Russia, p. 79. 146) For a more ample discussion of Lvov's contribution and his struggle with Moscow's bureaucracy, see I. von Gardner, "Aleksei Feodorovich L'vov, "Pravoslavnyi put' (1970). 147) Lvov, "Zapiski," p. 74. 148) These were mostly choirs of various gvardeiskie polki as those belonging to clergy officials declined to participate. A. Lvov, "Zapiski," p. 98. "Eventually, however, due to the overwhelming beauty of this singing, the clergy stopped opposing it and now, thank God, in all churches of St. Petersburg and Moscow, this singing is very much appreciated." A. Lvov, "Zapiski," pp. 99-100. 149) Lvov, "Zapiski," pp. 254-255 and p. 89. 150) Russkaia muzykal'naia gazeta, 38 (1903). Quoted in English in V. Morosan, Choral Performance in Pre-Revolutionary Russia, p. 82. 151) Hector Berlioz, Les Soirees de l'Orchestre (Paris: 1853), pp. 268-270. 152) Ibid, p. 271. 165) Lomakin was especially known for his knowledge of voice technique, which he related to a singer's ability to use the "head" tone. His Voice Method was published in St. Petersburg in 1861. Iu. Goriainov, Lomakin: Dirizher, Kompozitor, Uchitel' (Moscow: 1984), pp. 70-72. 166) Quoted in N. Kompaneisky, "Vliianie sochinenii Glinki na tserkovnuiu muzyku," Russkaia muzykal'naia gazeta, no. 19-20 (1904), p. 494. 167) Kompaneisky, N. "Primechanie k izdaniiu Metoda peniia M.I. Glinki," and "Metod M.I. Glinki," in Russkaia muzykal'naia gazeta, no. 47 (1903), pp. 1143-1155. 168) N. Kompaneisky, "Vliiania sochinenii Glinki na tserkovnuiu muzyku," Russkaia muzykal'naia gazeta, no. 19-20 (1904), pp. 494-503. 169) Gardner notes that the exact death date of many of the composers who wrote for the Church and died during the revolution, is not known. Bogosluzhebnoe penie, ft. 239, p. 444. 170) For further discussion and citations, see V. Morosan, Choral Performance in Pre-Revolutionary Russia, pp. 155-157. 171) V. Morosan, Choral Performance, p. 186. 172) D. Lokshin, Zamechatel'nye Russkie khory I ikh dirizhery (Moscow: 1963), p. 78. 173) D. Lokshin, Zamechatel'nye Russkie khory, p. 79. 174) V. Morosan, Choral Performance, p. 187. For additional reviews and reactions, see pp. 94-96. 175) V. Morosan, Choral Performance, p. 187. 176) Lokshin, Zamechatel'nye Russkie khory, p. 80. 177) V. Bakumenko, "A. A. Arkhangel'sky," Zhurnal Moskovskoi Patriarkhii, p. 24.
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